1. Please explain the terms or concepts (20% ):
Infodemic
Disinformation
Virtual reality
Augmented reality
COP27
COP27 埃及氣候峰會的關鍵議題:損失與損害
非洲 COP27
COP27,聯合國氣候變化綱要公約第 27 次締約國大會,原定於 2022 年11 月 6 至 18 日在埃及召開,卻拖延了 39 個小時的紅眼談判,直到 20 日清晨才達成共識,確立「夏姆錫克行動計畫」(Sharm El-Sheikh ImplementationPlan)。COP27 的主要訴求是 Together for Implementation,此次會議成果為未來氣候行動擘畫了推動框架,其中最重要的突破是成立「損失與損害基金」。這是第五次在非洲舉辦的年度氣候大會。摩洛哥曾經舉辦過兩次,分別為 COP7 和 COP22;南非,COP17;肯亞,COP12。聯合國每五年選在非洲開會,巧妙兼顧了地域平衡和南北競合。開幕儀式上,公約秘書處執行秘書 Simon Stiell 致詞:「COP21,巴黎給了我們巴黎協定(Pairs Agreement),COP26,格拉斯哥談成了氣候協議(Glasgow Climate Pact),這次在非洲聚會,所有條約協議將轉化為具體行動。」
關於氣候變遷,行動永遠比倡議少。跨政府諮詢委員會(IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change, IPCC)已經陸續完成了六次科學評估報告,從氣候情境分析,提出了減緩路徑與調適策略。除了科學預測,觀測資料同時指出,氣候暖化/極端氣候所導致的氣象災害也日漸頻繁,日益嚴重。特別是 2022年,熱浪、乾旱、沙漠化、豪暴雨、土石流與洪災,接踵而來。四月的南非,一天之內,下了一年 75% 的雨量,造成了洪災。歐洲度過了歷史上最熱的夏天,以及第二熱的一年。5 至 10 月的奈及利亞,經歷了自 2012 年以來最嚴重的洪水,140 萬人流離失所。8 月,巴基斯坦宣布國家進入緊急狀態:洪水淹沒了 10% 至 12% 的國土,房舍/牲畜/農地/學校/道路/橋樑遭到毀損,影響了三千三百萬居民的生計與健康,經世界銀行初步估計,重建金額至少需要 163 億美元。
損失與損害
國家遭遇的損失與損害,並不包含在現有的減緩 / 調適補助機制之內。損失與損害的幅度,也與其溫室氣體排放的多寡無關。譬如,小島國家的總排放量幾乎是零,但其所面臨的海平面上升、海岸消逝、熱帶氣旋、非志願移民、交通電力損害等負面影響,國力無法負荷。同樣的,非洲國家的溫室氣體排放僅占全球排放的 4%。遭遇高溫、乾旱、空污與食安等氣象災害,其因應能力也極為薄弱。總的來說,損失與損害無可避免,而受害國家通常是排放少,應變差,回復能力最為脆弱的南方發展中國家和小島國家。
事實上,損失與損害的概念,早在 1991 年起草《氣候變化綱要公約》(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC)的時候,由小島國家聯盟率先發聲。1992 年公約正式簽訂的內容,僅以「保險可以做為因應氣候負面影響的一種工具」,一筆帶過。同時,公約也揭櫫了「共同但有區別的責任」原則,要求工業發達國家應該負起歷史責任,帶頭減量。在冗長的氣候談判過程中,損失與損害曾經和氣候調適一併討論。直到 2013年 COP19 氣候峰會時,才正式納入體制,成立「華沙國際機制」(WarsawInternational Mechanism for Loss and Damage, WIM)作為專責工作小組。2015年,COP21 巴黎氣候峰會有了重大進展,直接寫入《巴黎協定》第 8 條第 3款:
“Parties should enhance understanding, action and support, including through
the Warsaw International Mechanism, as appropriate, on a cooperative and
facilitative basis with respect to loss and damage associated with the adverse
effects of climate change."
這次在埃及開會,烏俄戰爭、全球通膨與無可遏止的天災人禍,逐步堆疊出損失與損害求償的正當性。身為受害國,巴基斯坦,正是發展中國家最大氣候談判集團―― G77 and China―― 2022 年的輪值主席。主辦國埃及也重申損失與損害的急迫性,必須在此次非洲氣候峰會對發展中國家作出交待。聯合國秘書長 António Guterres 鄭重強調,「溫室氣體排放與日俱增,全球氣溫持續上升,地球正快速接近氣候不可逆轉的臨界點。我們腳踩著油門,正駛向極端氣候地獄之路」,呼籲在 2050 年之前達成全球淨零排放,「若無法達成氣候團結公約(Climate Solidarity Pact),剩下的就是集體自殺公約(CollectiveSuicide Pact)。」
損失與損害基金
損失與損害已經成為國際氣候談判中氣候減緩,氣候調適以外的第三支柱。損失與損害議題同時受到發展中國家與工業化國家的重視,並已列入COP27 議程。重點是,誰來買單?原則上,工業發達國家理解也不反對損失與損害的補助機制。但不願落入「賠償」(compensation)與「法律責任」(liability)的無底黑洞。從條約內容來看,損失與損害到現在還沒有正式的定義。金額估算上,經濟的損失與損害還可以估計,非經濟的損失與損害如海岸消逝,文化消失,目前仍難以計算。至於管理機制,到底是由現有的基金來管理――例如世界銀行、全球環境基金(Global Environment Facility, GEF)、綠色氣候基金(Green Climate Fund,GCF)?還是新設專款專用的基金管理委員會?其中最懸而不決的辯論則集中在誰來出錢?誰是補助對象?捐贈者以及受助者的資格確立,始終是個兩難困境。捐贈者的捐助必須是針對損失與損害所挹注的新款項,不能用現有的援外基金來搪塞,也不能用氣候減緩/調適基金來抵算。受助國的資格辯論更是大會延宕的主要原因。
以經濟發展單一指標所定義的「發展中國家」,並不適用於氣候排放國家分類光譜。特別是仍屬於發展中國家的新興排放大戶,如中國、印度、印尼,以及中東產油國家如卡達、科威特等人均排放大戶,是否還能列為受助者?談判延長期間,COP27 主席 Sameh Shoukry 特別強調,這是非洲國家集體發聲的歷史時刻,也是見證全球氣候行動的關鍵時刻,需要針對損失與損害做出具體決議。辯論撐到最後一刻,受助國資格加上了附帶條件,必須是氣候特別脆弱(particularly vulnerable)國家,而非泛指所有發展中國家。巴基斯坦氣候部長 Sherry Rehman 即時發言指出,損失與損害基金不是作慈善,「而是建構我們共同未來的頭期款,實現氣候正義的頭期款」,歐盟、英國隨之附議。丹麥首先允諾樂捐 1 億丹麥克朗(相當於 13.5 百萬歐元)。接續同意出資的還有加拿大、德國、紐西蘭和蘇格蘭。回顧整個談判過程,從理念、風險、氣象災害、人道救援、人權落實、補助求償到成立基金,這樣一路走來,氣候行動網絡 COP27 代表 Tasneem Essop 在會場上慷慨發言:「沒有人權,何來氣候正義?我們尚未被擊敗,我們也永遠不會被擊敗」。這是國際氣候談判第一次正面回應了損失與損害課題,成立補助基金。
2. Recent years have witnessed a remarkable development of artificial intelligence (AI). We have seen a wider array of Al applications used in our daily life. Whereas this novel technology certainty creates a lot of possibilities, it also gives rise to some problems that we all need to be concerned about.
(1) What is the Al application that you think is most valuable to you and why?
(2) Please describe two advantages and problems brought about by AI. (3) In what way do you think the development and the use of Al should be regulated? (15%)
3. Taiwan is among the top countries that suffered from the attack of international disinformation attack. Please answer the following questions based on this context.
- Please differentiate between disinformation, misinformation, and fake news.
- Please describe what the government has been doing in grappling with disinformation and what you think the government can improve.
- What can social media platforms and the general public do to reduce the spread of false information? (15%)
4. Online open-source investigation
The credibility of the news media is decreasing, but some scholars argue that online open-source investigation has great potential to build trust between journalism and citizens (Reese & Chen,2022). In 2017, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant based solely on video evidence from social media. The report on gas attacks in Syria by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons relies heavily on images from Google Earth. The Netherlands-based organization Bellingcat came to fame with its investigation of the downing of a Malaysian Airlines flight in 2014.
The New York Times investigates court documents, text messages, and hundreds of videos shows how the rioters coordinated to instigate multiple breaches of the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6,2021. A more detailed understanding of that event was aided by not only professional news media, but also documented by the participants themselves via social media, and left a lot of incriminating information available online for news media to process, with help of experts, data transparency activists, and citizens.
- (10%) Please provide a clear definition of online open-source investigation.
- (15%) Is it an alternative practice (i.e., citizen journalism) to professional news media authority? Or is it an emerging network for the hybrid institution of journalism? Please give an example and explain why?
6. Chatbots on social media
Released by OpenAI last December, ChatGPT is suddenly everywhere and tries to, answer questions like a person. It can write essays, come up with scripts for podcast and TV shows, answer math questions, and even write code. Despite the potential benefits, people are worried about what could go wrong with Chatbots. Some even point out that chatbots are a danger to democracy and we need to identify, disqualify and regulate chatbots before they destroy political speech (Susskind, 2022). What do you think?
- (10%) What are the pros and cons of Chatbots regarding free speech on social media?
- (15%) Do you agree with that we need to identify and regulate chatbots? Do you think we need to treat the speech of chatbots with the same reverence that we treat human speech? Why?