中山大學109 學年度碩士迸招生考試 系所：行銷傳播管理所科目：傳播理論與實務

一、單選題（共50分，每題5分）：

1.下列有關媒介效果何者為正確？

1. 媒介效果可以只看媒介暴露，因為媒介暴露是媒介效果中影響最強的變項。
2. 新聞電視頻道這麼多，但播報的內容與角度只有少數幾個。雖然如此，看在新聞電視頻道數目多的份上，我們可以說閱聽人有媒體多樣性。
3. 媒介系統依賴論強調人們有了解自己和了解社會環境的需求，媒介就成為了滿足這些需求的主要工具。
4. Dramatized news 指的是新聞媒體在從消息來源獲得大量資訊後經挑選具有新聞價值的事件、編輯、刪減，再呈現資訊的一種新聞。

2. 所謂的 priming effect 指的是

1. 閱聽人基於某些動機使用媒體來滿足自己的需求。
2. 閱聽人使用媒體的時間越長，越容易受所使用媒體的影響，對於現實的感知也越接近所使用媒體的內容。
3. 閱聽人會倚賴腦海中最可得的資訊而產生認知的侷限。新聞媒體的報導左右閱聽人的資訊可得性，進一步影響閱聽人對新聞事件中的主角或主題之評判基礎，改變閱聽人的態度。
4. 閱聽人有自主權與主導權，會建構對於現實的感知，並不會輕易受所使用媒體的影響。

3. R 媒體集團高層會議中，與會人員對於公司欲併購Q媒體一事爭議不斷。董事長 Jerry
旋即表達贊同意見，由於他的權威性與影響力，Jerry 的意見逐漸成為具有支配性與主導性的意見。大部分的主管也陸續表達支持。財務長Mark 心理雖持反對意見，但他意識到目前贊成併購案占大多數，成為主流看法，自己的反對意見屬於少數，自己的意見可能不會被人所接受，為了防止被孤立，只好保持沉默。這種現象叫做

1. Spiral of silence
2. Contingency C. Framing effects D. Agenda setting

4.研究人員造訪中天新聞台，貼身觀察新聞台內所發生的一般事件和日常活動，以及不尋常的情境，用完整的筆記蒐集資料、整理資料，直至確認資料浮現重複、一致的態樣，乃視為飽和而停止蒐集資料。這種直接參與被研究對象的生活指的是下列哪種研究方法？

A. 田野調查 B.近身採訪C.深度訪談 D.內容分析

5. The headline… is crucial in the decision of whether to read an article or not, which is typically based on rather quick heuristics, for instance on the presumed utility, newsworthiness, or credibility of the full article (Sundar, Knobloch-Westerwick, & Hastall, 2007; Winter & Kramer, 2014). Classic research in the selective exposure paradigm (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944) has demonstrated that people tend to prefer information that is consistent with their preexisting attitudes (“confirmation bias;” Hart et al., 2009)…
As a potential explanation of attitude-consistent choices, many studies refer to cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957), which states that inconsistencies in one’s beliefs arouse mental discomfort: Exposure to like-minded content (selective approach) could help to reduce these aversive states, and selective avoidance of attitude-inconsistent content would prevent further dissonance. Accordingly, research has demonstrated the selection of attitude-consistent news articles based on headlines over the selection of attitude-inconsistent options (e.g., Knobloch-Westerwick & Meng, 2009). Yet, although both tendencies may co-occur, Garrett (2009b) suggests disentangling selective approach and avoidance, arguing that reinforcement seeking is the more influential process, because a strict avoidance of any challenging information is too difficult and would also conflict with positive self-views and the desire to gather useful information (Frey, 1986). Indeed, a study with online news headlines (Garrett, 2009a) showed that the positive influence of perceived congruency of the content on the likelihood of selection was stronger than the negative influence of the perceived amount of attitude-challenging information.
摘錄自 Winer,S.， Metzger, M. J.， & Flanagin, A. J. （2016）. A multiple-motive perspective on
information selection in social media environments. Journal of Communication, 66, 669-693.
根據這一段文的邏輯，本身對人工智慧非常排斥、覺得人工智慧會破壞我們人類原有的生活跟倫理的美惠，在網路新聞上看到人工智慧相關報導時，會傾向點選怎麼樣的新聞標題？

1. 描述人工智慧技術上如何突破的新聞標題。
2. 正反並陳人工智慧優劣的新聞標題。
3. 贊成人工智慧是有利人類的新聞標題。
4. 反對人工智慧是有利人類的新聞標題。

6.承上題，根據這一段文的邏輯，本身對人工智慧非常排斥、覺得人工智慧會破壞我們人類原有的生活跟倫理的美惠，在看到新聞報導人工智慧的好處、為人類的生活帶來改善時，她比較會

1. 改變對人工智慧的觀點，認為人工智慧是好的。
2. 對人工智慧採取中立的態度。
3. 覺得新聞都只是講好的，堅信人工智慧會破壞我們人類原有的生活跟倫理。
4. 覺得很混亂，不知道人工智慧對人類到底好不好。

7.下列哪一項不是人們在面對認知失調時，減少認知失調的做法是？

1. 小明在購買智慧音箱之後，覺得購買的東西有問題，不如預期的好。隔天，他聽到別人說別的品牌比較便宜、功能比較多。他花了五天，積極的尋找資訊來證明「當初的決定是對的」。
2. 小明透過口碑推薦，網購了一件襯衫，但買了後覺得穿起來不好看。他想，退貨很麻煩，就算了。
3. 想減肥的小明，在大吃一頓後，好好控制飲食。
4. 想減肥的小明，在大吃一頓後，有很深的罪惡感，但隨即轉念一想「偶爾吃一吃不會增加多少啦」而釋懷。

8.下列哪一項，不是 NCC 國家通訊傳播委員會的業務？

1. 衛星廣播電視事業執照所載事項變更之換發
2. 船舶無線電臺架設許可證核准、廢止或展期
3. 管理氣象業務，並以各種媒體傳播氣象觀測、氣象預報、地震測報、海象測報
4. 提出電信管理法草案及數位通訊傳播法草案來制定數位匯流管制環境

9.下列有關國家通訊傳播委員會組織法的規定，何者是正確的

1. 依法設置委員九人，任期三年，任滿得連任。其中一人為主任委員。
2. 審議各種傳播工具上的人民的言論自由的法律與政策，禁止媒體（包括網路）傳播色情、暴力、仇恨。
3. 由行政院院長提名，經立法院同意後任命之，行政院院長為提名時，應指定一人為主任委員，一人為副主任委員。委員中同一黨籍者不得超過委員總數二分之一。
4. 委員於其離職後一年內，不得擔任與其離職前三年內之職務直接相關之營利事業董事、監察人、經理、執行業務之股東或顧問。

10. Important debates as to what should count as either fact or fiction have long animated communication scholarship (for example, see Strange and Katz (1998)) and yet we nonetheless can argue reasonably that media content can mislead audiences and that such deception, whether inadvertent or intentional, is common. Describing the working lives of journalists, Kampf and Daskal (2014) have written that”… the peril of being wrong is unavoidable” (p.

165). Political consultants, marketers, and public relations professionals clearly face a similar danger in their work, and at times may even be tempted to knowingly promote such information. Communication professionals routinely broadcast and promote information that third-party observers in regulatory agencies or watchdog groups deem to be at odds with officially endorsed facts. Such misinformation warrants study not only in terms of its prevalence but also in terms of its consequence and potential remedies.

At the least, three aspects of misinformation as a mass communication phenomenon, however, make the notion both problematic and theoretically compelling for social scientists. First, the human brain is arguably biased toward acceptance and retention of misinformation once exposed to such information (Gilbert, Tafarodi, & Malone, 1993). Second, the regulatory structures of major democracies, such as the United States, tend toward post hoc detection of broadcast misinformation rather than toward prevention (and authoritarian regimes typically do not offer any greater hope in this regard given vested interest in information control rather than truth, per se). Third, it can be a difficult and expensive task to ensure that corrections of misinformation reach as widely as the original misinformation… Any campaign to correct misinformation, even if poised to succeed in terms of message content, likely requires considerable planning to reach all relevant members of a population in question.

Misinformation is thus challenging to remedy not only because of how humans process information but also because of the complexity of audience reach in contemporary society.

Moreover, misinformation correction might require multiple message exposures, especially since beliefs can act as a distraction of sorts that can interfere with processing of new information intended to refute those beliefs, for example, Kendeou, Walsh, Smith, and O’Brien

(2014). Such potential cognitive distraction only further underscores the importance of repeated exposure for misinformation refutation efforts… Weeks (2015)… examines how emotions— specifically, anger and anxiety-enhance or inhibit partisan motivated reasoning.

Although research suggests that these emotions strongly affect how people process new political information (Albertson & Gadarian, 2015), Weeks’ is the first study to examine their role in the context of misinformation and correction. He finds that although anger increases reliance on partisan predispositions (and thus the rejection of noncongenial information), anxiety has the opposite effect. These findings have important implications for designing more effective corrections and minimizing the role of motivated reasoning in information processing. the Southwell, B, G., & Thorson, E. A. (2015). The prevalence, consequence, and remedy of misinformation in mass media systems. Journal of Communication, 65, 589-595.

根據上述，下列何者是正確的？

1. 為確保假消息可以被修正過來，強力多曝光更正訊息就萬無一失了。
2. 民主國家採取事後發現、處罰的機制太沒效率我們要學習專制國家，採取事前就要預防假消息的發生，才不會像現在假新聞氾濫，干擾我們的生活。
   1. 第三方事實查核機制所發布的更正假消息的訊息，可以改變受眾的錯誤認知。
   2. 更正訊息常無助於降低受眾的錯誤認知，一方面是因為受眾一開始在接受了假消息，便形成的難以撼動的信念。另一方面是因為受眾的複雜度高，情感、動機等等都會影響更正訊息的成效。

   二、問答題（共50分）：

   1.2016年底的美國總統大選讓「假新聞」開始成為國際矚目的公共議題，當年的十一月至十二月問，關鍵字「假新聞」在 Google搜尋的次數，比過去十五個月累積的總次數還要多。社群媒體的發展更助長假新聞的產製數量以及傳遞的速度與範圍，請問：
   （1）假新聞的定義是甚麼？（10%）
   （2）請以一個傳播理論來分析假新聞所呈現出的議題，能否預測線上新聞媒體所呈現出的網絡議題？（15%）

   2.由於傳播科技的發展，腦中介傳播（Computer-mediated Communication, CMC）對於戀愛關係的建立扮演重要的角色，各式線上交友約會平台（例如：約會網站、交友軟體）的使用越來越普及。請問：

   (1) The hyperpersonal model of CMC (Walther, 1996) offers a conceptual framework for understanding and predicting differences in interpersonal interaction and attraction between communication modalities, that has been used to understand communication in online dating situations (e.g., Ramirez Jr et al., 2015; Toma, Hancock, & Ellison, 2008). In contrast to more traditional models of communication, it suggests that media with fewer, rather than greater, cue Systems afford users more control over their Message construction. (th sif t: Antheunis, M.

   L., Schouten, A. P., & Walther, J. B. (2019). The hyperpersonal effect in online dating: effects of text-based CMC vs. videoconferencing before meeting face-to-face. Media Psychology, 1-

   20.）

   如何以上述這段話中提到的理論觀點，來解釋線上交友約會平台的用戶，從線上發展為線下面對面的戀愛關係？（10%）

   （2）隨著交友約會平台提供的媒體功能越來越多，使用者可經由文字、聲音、影像等多媒體彼此溝通聯繫，請以至少一個理論來預測交友軟體使用者先經由CMC 管道溝通後，再跟對方面對面見面，和線上的吸引力相比，對方線下的吸引力會產生甚麼改變？（15%）